Since it became possible to travel, there has been an obsession with the ‘Other’. This is particularly evident in the cultures of both Europe and Japan who for the most part have studied and often absorbed the different cultural practices and aesthetics they have been exposed to. Europe was fast colonizing the world in the 17th century and although the Japanese were fairly isolated they held china in high regard and had a strong, proud sense of national identity. So it is interesting to observe how these evenly matched cultures reacted to their meeting and how their relationship has changed throughout their turbulent collective history, during which we have seen the ‘Chained Country Edict’, Japonism and a nuclear attack. The most fascinating way to do this is through their art and the ways in which one influenced the ‘Other’. Whoever that was.
Before the arrival of the Portuguese in Japan in 1543, the country had a largely chinocentric view of the world. Much of the culture and art being influenced by that of China and its neighbouring countries. Chinese art was revered much in the same way that that of classical Greece was by Europeans and was considered to come from a strong, ancient culture worthy of admiration. The Portuguese on the other hand, when they first arrived were regarded as inferior peoples, with none of the stately calm and grace of the Japanese and were known collectively as Nanban or ‘Southern Barbarians’. Despite their hasty ways the Portuguese fascinated the Japanese and interest quickly grew in their image making, in particular their rendering of human figures which seemed more alive than anything Japanese artists produced. The Portuguese were equally aware of the differences between the two artistic styles:
‘…Although they copy nature in their paintings, they do not like a multitude and crowd of things in pictures, but prefer to portray, even in a sumptuous and lovely palace, just a few solitary things with due proportion between them, and indeed they distinguish themselves in this respect. But they know very little about painting the human body and its various parts, and they can hardly be compared with our painters as regards the portrayal of the body itself and the proportions of its members; they lack a true knowledge of shading figures, for it is this which makes figures stand out and gives them strength and beauty.’ Joao Rodrig[1]
Interestingly the Japanese were afraid of colonisation and had the ability to resist being taken over by the Europeans because of their deeply engrained national identity and advanced military. Despite this the lure of the exotic quickly caught on and Western luxury goods became popular status symbols, Japanese screen painters depicted scenes of European arrivals and general Europeanization was evident. “The Japanese have always been quick to incorporate foreign concepts into their own culture”[2]
The term Nanbanbijutsu refers to Japanese art with Nanban themes or influenced by Nanban designs.[3] There are several remaining examples of folding screens that come under the fuzokuga[4] category and in particular depict the theme of the arrival of the Nanban and their manners and customs.[5]
After at least 95 years of exposure through trade with the West, Japan shut its boarders to all but a few Dutch and Chinese traders. Even Japanese people were forbidden from travelling overseas and those abroad were not allowed to return. This ‘Chained Country Edict’ as it was known, lasted some 220 years until 1858[6] and until 1720 there was even a ban on the study of Europe and on the importation of European books[7]. During this period Japanese art appeared to forget all that was learnt about the Western ways of image making, and there was a return to purely Japanese subject matter. There was a resurgence of Japanese nationalism and more government control was experienced. The Japanese clearly showed their ability to resist Europeanization and displayed the strength of their pre European culture.
In 1851 the International Exposition trend began with the building of Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London and a wave of information sharing and exposure to other cultures and technologies swept across Europe. In the same decade Japan reopened its boarders and ten years later in 1868 a new Japanese government came into power and sets about modernizing the country and joining the Western world with wide spread industrialization. Up until this point Japan had remained in a pre industrial state: “the products of a country still in a stage of handicraft industry, they were part and parcel of the culture and land, people and environment where they were made. In this sense they were more than simply products of industry, but expressions of a unique culture that had developed in isolation over the centuries.”[8] This pre-industrial image of Japan greatly appealed to people involved in the art and craft movement in Europe as artistic values were ingrained into all areas of Japanese life and by becoming industrialized Japan betrayed the ideals it represented to them. “Devoting itself intensely to industrialization, it concentrated single-mindedly on westernization. The tradition that nineteenth century Europe saw as the wellspring of a new culture, the Japanese treated merely as tradition – things of the past, not present or future of the new Japan.”[9]
So as Japan was looking west and to a future as part of the wider industrialized world many in the West were turning their attention firmly to Japan as an example of a better time where the arts were highly and widely valued, and the skills and vision of the maker and artist were appreciated by society.
After trade was re-established with Japan in the 1850′s, Japanese products flooded the European market and a new generation of artists were quick to pick up on the versatile inspiration they offered. They were a refreshing glimpse away from some of the more depressing aspects of industrialization and an alternative to the conventions of academic art in Europe. “Japanese art was introduced to the West at just the right moment to offer the alternative of a varied and sophisticated artistic tradition.”[10]The influence of Japanese art, culture and aesthetics became known as Japonism[11] One of the first artists who produced work clearly in response to the availability of Japanese objects was James McNeill Whistler, in 1863-1864 he painted La Princesse du Pay de la Porcelaine (The Princess from the Land of Porcelain)[12], he staged japoneries like this one using a model wearing Japanese Kimono, Japanese painted fan and other oriental props. His posing of the model references asymmetrical Japanese composition but the painting is in many ways still very much influenced by his European education and sketch-like realism, different elements which he fused together. “Whistler was trying to work through Japanese art toward an original vision that did not reject his Western heritage but gave it a new direction.”[13] Whistler gained from Japonism a highly refined and delicate style. He was also associated with the impressionists[14] who were similarly interested in all things Japanese. They too were quick to utilize the unusual compositional stylings and bold colour found in many Japanese woodblock prints of the time.
One such impressionist was Vincent van Gogh who collected a vast number of Japanese woodblock prints with his brother Theo. Like many people who were influenced by these images van Gogh explored their characteristics by copying them directly,[15] as well as painting japoneries[16]. Van Gogh traced the pictures and painted them in his own impressionist style but still generally following the colours of the original. It is interesting to note that he built up bold painted frames around the paintings which he decorated with Japanese style characters.[17]
A century after van Gogh and other European artists were directly referencing Japanese printmakers; many young Japanese artists are doing the same. The world changed a great deal during that time, we have seen continuing industrialization, the digital revolution and two world wars, the second of which ended with use of atomic weapons by the U.S.A against Japan in 1945. Many Japanese artists are now working with ideas of living in a post nuclear Japan and the U.S occupation that followed. One of the leading figures dealing with this internationally is Teraoka Murakma who mimics traditional Japanese prints in his watercolour paintings of apparently traditional subjects which on closer inspection directly reference contemporary American culture as well as the japoneries of 19th century Europe[18]. “This kind of “Orientalism” was imported back into Japanese society in the 1980s”[19]. Another, Yoshitomo Nara also discusses “contemporary Japan versus traditional Japanese culture, and how it all relates to the West. Nara made the bold move of painting over Japanese woodblock prints with his images of badass, horrific little kids and their dogs.[20] Everyone since Manet brings up Japanese woodblock prints whenever talking about Japanese culture, so what better cultural icon for Nara to appropriate and deface?”[21] It is clear to see that Japanese culture has been greatly affected by its use overseas as well as the general Europeanization and Americanization that occurred. “The betrayal implied in Nara’s work resonates, because it expresses a universally shared loss of innocence.” [22] Many works, like those of Murakama and Akira Yamaguchi[23] are more obviously nationalistic, it is easy to see Yamaguchi’s use of the style of 17th century screens. Even if they do refer to a much changed Japan and incorporated decidedly Western influences, they also copy styles which are thought of as stereotypically traditional. In this way the artist show a relation to an obsessive and distorted national identity that has seen extremely rapid modernization.
“Robin Spencer Writes: “the exposure of occidental art to Japanese artists, and the influence of Japanese art on Western artists, has produced hybrid styles which had little to do with the ancient traditions of any one civilization.”[24] but speaks about them all and the way in which world travel, industrialization, globalization, and the internet has led to a some what global nationalism where it is becoming less and less likely that a person only identifies with one culture, heritage, nation etc. Hybridity occurs everywhere, especially in art. The Japan may have put off exposing itself to the world for 220 years beginning back in the 17th century but today the same would be impossible – (the harder it is to get information about and from a place, the more the world wants it – take Myanmar as an example) and in the mean time Japan has more than caught up, it arguably leads the world in terms of integrating technology into every aspect of life just as it did with art.
· [1] Perter Stupples, NANBANJIN: The Portuguese in Japan. (Lecture Presentation, March 5th 2008), slide 20.
[2] Yoshida Mitsukuni ed. et al., The Hybrid Culture: What Happened When East and West Met. Hiroshima, Japan: MAZDA, 1984), 18.
[3] See Figure 1.
[4] Jun’ichiOkubo. “A Witness to History: A photographic introduction to items from the collection”, Museum Science Department, National Museum of Japanese History http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/e-rekihaku/122/
[5] See Figure 2
[6] Yoshida Mitsukuni ed. et al., The Hybrid Culture: What Happened When East and West Met. Hiroshima, Japan: MAZDA, 1984), 38.
[7] Yoshida Mitsukuni ed. et al., The Hybrid Culture: What Happened When East and West Met. Hiroshima, Japan: MAZDA, 1984), 41.
[8] Yoshida Mitsukuni ed. et al., The Hybrid Culture: What Happened When East and West Met. Hiroshima, Japan: MAZDA, 1984), 87.
[9] Yoshida Mitsukuni ed. et al., The Hybrid Culture: What Happened When East and West Met. (Hiroshima, Japan: MAZDA, 1984), 89.
[10] Gabriel P. Weisberg, et al, Japonisme: Japanese Influence on French Art 1854-1910. (Ohio, USA, The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1975), 115.
[11] Jap·o·nism –noun
1.something typically Japanese.
2.the influence of Japanese art, culture, and aesthetics.
Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1)
Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2006.
[12] See Figure 3.
[13] Gabriel P. Weisberg, et al, Japonisme: Japanese Influence on French Art 1854-1910. (Ohio, USA, The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1975), 115.
[14] im·pres·sion·ism –noun
Fine Arts.
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Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2006.
[15] See Figures 5 and 6.
[16] See Figure 4.
[17] These paintings were displayed together with the prints they were copied from at an exhibition of van Gogh’s Japonism works and his collection of Japanese prints and artefacts at the Van Gogh Gallery in Amsterdam in late 2006.
[18] See Figure 7.
[19] Hiroki Azuma, “Superflat Japanese Postmodernity” Lecture at MOCA Gallery, Pacific design centre, West Hollywood, December 5, 2001. http://www.hirokiazuma.com/en/texts/superflat enl.html
[20] See Figure 8.
[21] Erik Wenzel, Artic” The Other Other: Japanese Artists Nara and Takano Have a Twisted Simplicity that Has Been Overlooked (2007). http://www.artic.edu/…/febfeatures3.html
[22] Kara Besher, “Yoshitomo Nara” http://www.assemblyanuage.com/reviews/Nara.html.
[23] See Figure 9.
[24] Yoshida Mitsukuni ed. et al., The Hybrid Culture: What Happened When East and West Met. Hiroshima, Japan: MAZDA, 1984), 90.
